Studies of the Human Body:
Anatomy is the study of the human body structure, both microscopically and macroscopically. It is the study of the cell, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and the organism. Part of the term comes from the Greek term that means "to cut apart" (1), since one of the numerous ways we can study the human body is to dissect it, or cut it open or apart. In the laboratory, whether it be the school laboratory Biology and Anatomy and Physiology courses, or in the hospital or clinic laboratory settings, tissues and organs are dissected for study and for diagnosis of conditions or disease. Entire organisms, or cadavers, are dissected either hands-on, or using special software or Anatomage tables to learn about the body.
A. Anatomical Position: Activity 1
The laboratory, pathology department, surgery, cytology department, and histology department are healthcare professionals you'll be working closely with to provide macroscopic and microscopic samples to be examined for analysis. Cytology is the study of cells, and this area of the laboratory looks at cells for any changes, tumors, abnormalities, syncytia (sticking together), or overgrowth. Histology is the study of tissues, and this area of the lab fixes tissues and fixes them to special slides with special stains to observe normal and abnormal segments or changes or growths. Microbiology is the study of disease, so they look at cells to see if they are microbes causing infection. Hematology is the area of the lab that looks at blood cells for normal and abnormal changes or conditions. The chemistry lab looks at the biochemicals and metabolic activities of cells. Molecular biology is the study of genetics and DNA of cells. Immunology looks at the immune response by the body to pathogens or nonpathogens that might result in autoimmune conditions, among other things. Urinalysis and body fluids look for color, consistency, turbidity, odor, cells, cell components, crystals and casts in urine. Some of these are gross anatomy, as well as microscopic anatomy. Forensics heavily relies on gross and microscopic anatomy to solve crimes.
Systems anatomy is the study of anatomy by system. This is how this website flows, how many Anatomy and Physiology courses flow, Medical Terminology courses flow, and many textbooks flow.
Physiology is the study of how the body functions. This is why human anatomy and physiology is known as the structure and function of life. "Ology" means "the study of". The body has so many methods of trying to restore balance, a steady state, or homeostasis. The respiratory system, urinary system, and buffers within the bloodstream are several of the major body systems that maintain homeostasis.
Many people who love Anatomy and Physiology become artists, writers, teachers, college professors, medical and healthcare professionals (there are a wide variety), anatomists, physiologists, medical lab technicians or scientists, cytologists (specialize in the study of cells), histologists (specialize in the study of tissues), microbiologists (specialize in the study of microbes), pathologists (doctors who do autopsies and review abnormal lab results), pathology assistants, forensic scientists, entomologists, morticians, software specialists, or specialize in very focused areas of Anatomy and Physiology, such as neurophysiology, cardiology, orthopedics, radiology, physical therapy, sports medicine, occupational therapy, surgery, sonography, and others. This information is applicable to all healthcare professionals and students seeking to pursue a healthcare profession.
A. Anatomical Position: Activity 1
- Anatomical Position - is a reference position to describe location of body parts or regions.
- The body is standing up straight, facing forward, face forward, arms straight and to the sides of the body with the palms facing forward, legs straight with feet facing forward and flat.
- Practice standing in anatomical position in front of a mirror.
The laboratory, pathology department, surgery, cytology department, and histology department are healthcare professionals you'll be working closely with to provide macroscopic and microscopic samples to be examined for analysis. Cytology is the study of cells, and this area of the laboratory looks at cells for any changes, tumors, abnormalities, syncytia (sticking together), or overgrowth. Histology is the study of tissues, and this area of the lab fixes tissues and fixes them to special slides with special stains to observe normal and abnormal segments or changes or growths. Microbiology is the study of disease, so they look at cells to see if they are microbes causing infection. Hematology is the area of the lab that looks at blood cells for normal and abnormal changes or conditions. The chemistry lab looks at the biochemicals and metabolic activities of cells. Molecular biology is the study of genetics and DNA of cells. Immunology looks at the immune response by the body to pathogens or nonpathogens that might result in autoimmune conditions, among other things. Urinalysis and body fluids look for color, consistency, turbidity, odor, cells, cell components, crystals and casts in urine. Some of these are gross anatomy, as well as microscopic anatomy. Forensics heavily relies on gross and microscopic anatomy to solve crimes.
Systems anatomy is the study of anatomy by system. This is how this website flows, how many Anatomy and Physiology courses flow, Medical Terminology courses flow, and many textbooks flow.
Physiology is the study of how the body functions. This is why human anatomy and physiology is known as the structure and function of life. "Ology" means "the study of". The body has so many methods of trying to restore balance, a steady state, or homeostasis. The respiratory system, urinary system, and buffers within the bloodstream are several of the major body systems that maintain homeostasis.
Many people who love Anatomy and Physiology become artists, writers, teachers, college professors, medical and healthcare professionals (there are a wide variety), anatomists, physiologists, medical lab technicians or scientists, cytologists (specialize in the study of cells), histologists (specialize in the study of tissues), microbiologists (specialize in the study of microbes), pathologists (doctors who do autopsies and review abnormal lab results), pathology assistants, forensic scientists, entomologists, morticians, software specialists, or specialize in very focused areas of Anatomy and Physiology, such as neurophysiology, cardiology, orthopedics, radiology, physical therapy, sports medicine, occupational therapy, surgery, sonography, and others. This information is applicable to all healthcare professionals and students seeking to pursue a healthcare profession.
Levels of the Organization of Life:
Life is organized by various levels, beginning with the buildings blocks of atoms, compounds and molecules, cells (basic units of all life), tissues (groups of cells that are specialized to perform a specific function), organs (tissues that function together), organ systems (various groups of organs working together to sustain life and maintain homeostasis), and finally, the organism.
Levels of the Organization of Life Terminology:
- Atom: An atom is made up of three subatomic particles: protons (positive charge), neutrons (neutral charge), and electrons (negative charge). The four major atoms (elements) the human body is made of include Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen atoms. Of course there are many essentials elements, trace elements, and other things we are made up of, but those are the major 4. Atoms are the simplest building blocks of matter.
- Molecule: Molecules are atoms bonded together with different types of bonds. If the molecules are different, they are compound molecules. If they are the same, they are simple molecules. The body is about 75% water, for example.
- Macromolecule: Macromolecules are large molecules that are very complex, such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
- Cellular organelles: These are cellular organs, or "little organs", each of which performs specific functions.
- Cells: Cells are the level at which something is considered to be "alive" and living. Cells are made up of molecules and cellular organelles, and have everything they need to live.
- Tissues: Tissues are made up of similar types of cells that work together to perform a common function.
- Organs: Two or more tissue types combine and work together to form an organ, and they perform a common function.
- Organ Systems: Organ systems consist of two or more organs that work together to perform a common function.
- The Organism: The living, human being consists of many organ systems working together to maintain homeostasis and sustain life.
The Eleven Body Systems:
- Organ systems: work together to provide the cells of the body with an optimal environment for their needs.
- Homeostasis: maintenance of an optimal environment within limits performed by all organ systems cooperating to maintain it.
- Disease/Disorder: is failure to maintain homeostasis.
What Constitutes "Life" or a "Living Organism"? Here are Some Traits:
- Living things consist of cells.
- Living things have the ability to grow and develop.
- Living things are able to reproduce.
- Living things can respond to stimuli.
- Living things have the ability to get food and eat.
- Living things seek to maintain a steady state of balance, or homeostasis.
- Living things have metabolic activities.
- Living things are organized.
- Living things have genes and alleles and are able to adapt to changes in their environment.
ANATOMICAL POSITION:
Anatomical position is the basic body position medical personnel refer to when referring to the body or areas of it. It is designated by standing tall with your head and eyes facing forward, open palms facing forward, arms down to the side, feet about shoulder width apart. See the examples of the images below:
Body Regions:
B. Body Regions: Activity 2 (Label on Page 2):
- See images for the main body regions and descriptions
- Head: face, skull
- Face - portion of head not covered by the scalp
- Skull - bony portion of the head
- Neck: body area between the head and trunk
- Trunk: chest, abdomen, pelvis, back; central body area to which head and limbs are attached
- Chest: area of trunk between neck and abdomen; contains the heart and lungs; diaphragm forms boundary between chest and abdomen
- Abdomen: area of trunk between chest and pelvis; contains digestive organs; hip bones form lower boundary of abdomen
- Pelvis: area of trunk below abdomen; contains internal reproductive organs and urinary bladder
- Back: posterior portion of trunk between neck and buttocks
- Upper limb: shoulder, armpit, arm, forearm, wrist, hand
- Shoulder: curved area where upper limb attaches to upper border of trunk
- Armpit: underarm area where upper limb attaches to trunk
- Arm: area of upper limb between shoulder and elbow
- Forearm: area of upper limb between elbow and wrist
- Wrist: portion of hand that connects hand to forearm
- Hand: includes wrist and fingers
- Lower limb: buttocks, groin, thigh, leg, ankle foot
- Buttocks: rounded area on posterior (back) surface where lower limb attaches to trunk
- Groin: area on the anterior (front) surface where lower limb attaches to the pelvis
- Thigh: area of lower limb above the knee
- Leg: area of lower limb between the knee and ankle
- Ankle: portion of the foot that connects foot to leg
- Foot: includes ankle and toes
ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY:
Now you practice standing in this position to help you understand....
C. Anatomical Terms: Activity 3, Label Figure 1.2 Using Table 1.2 With Appropriate Anatomical Terms and Review/Study the Definitions:
- Describe body regions, specific body areas, and landmarks
- Often include part of the names of muscles, bones, nerves, blood vessels
- Many are derived from Latin or Greek terms
- Many have one or more word roots, a prefix, and/or a suffix
- Axial: pertaining to the central part of the body, the head and trunk
- Appendicular: pertaining to the extremities or limbs
- Cephalic: pertaining to the head; facial, frontal, orbital, otic, nasal, buccal, oral, cranial, occipital
- Facial - pertaining to the face
- Frontal - pertaining to the forehead
- Orbital - pertaining to the eye
- Otic - pertaining to the ear
- Nasal - pertaining to the nose
- Buccal - pertaining to the cheek
- Oral - pertaining to the mouth
- Cranial - pertaining to the skull
- Occipital - pertaining to the back of the head
- Cervical: pertaining to the neck
- Thoracic: pertaining to the chest; pectoral, sternal
- Pectoral - pertaining to the breast area
- Sternal - pertaining to the breast bone
- Abdominal: pertaining to the abdomen; ventral, umbilical, coxal
- Ventral - pertaining to the belly; front
- Umbilical - pertaining to the navel
- Coxal - pertaining to the hip
- Pelvic: pertaining to the pelvis; pubic
- Pubic- pertaining to the genital area
- Dorsal: pertaining to the back; scapular, vertebral, lumbar
- Scapular - pertaining to the shoulder blade region
- Vertebral - pertaining to the spine
- Lumbar - pertaining to the lower back or loin region
- Anterior: pertaining to the front
- Posterior: behind; pertaining to the back
- Upper Appendage: upper limb; acromial, axillary, brachial, antecubital, olecranal, antebrachial, carpal, digital
- Acromial - pertaining to the highest point of the shoulder
- Axillary - pertaining to the armpit
- Brachial - pertaining to the arm
- Antecubital - pertaining to the anterior (front) surface of the elbow (the crease)
- Olecranal - pertaining to the posterior (back) of the elbow
- Antebrachial - pertaining to the forearm
- Carpal - pertaining to the wrist
- Digital - pertaining to the digits (fingers)
- Lower Appendage: lower limb; inguinal, gluteal, femoral, patellar, popliteal, fibular or peroneal, tarsal, pedal, calcaneal, plantar, digital
- Inguinal - pertaining to the groin where the thigh attaches to the pelvis
- Gluteal - pertaining to the buttocks
- Femoral - pertaining to the thigh
- Patellar - pertaining to the anterior (front) surface of the knee
- Fibular/peroneal - pertaining to the lateral side of the leg
- Tarsal - pertaining to the ankle
- Pedal - pertaining to the foot
- Calcaneal - pertaining to the heel
- Plantar - pertaining to the sole of the foot
- Digital - pertaining to the digits (toes)
BODY ORIENTATION AND DIRECTION:
ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY, BODY MOVEMENT AND DIRECTIONAL REFERENCES:
Anterior: front or forward
Inferior: below other structures
Medial: towards the midline or middle, closer to the body
Lateral: outward; further out from the body, away from the midline or middle
Proximal: closer to the trunk or midline or end that is attached
Distal: further away from the trunk or midline or end that is attached
Superficial: on the surface or toward the surface
Deep: internal or further from the surface
Cranial or Cephalad: toward the head ("crown")
Caudal: toward the tail ("tailbone" or "coccyx")
- Ventral
- Dorsal
Inferior: below other structures
Medial: towards the midline or middle, closer to the body
Lateral: outward; further out from the body, away from the midline or middle
Proximal: closer to the trunk or midline or end that is attached
Distal: further away from the trunk or midline or end that is attached
Superficial: on the surface or toward the surface
Deep: internal or further from the surface
Cranial or Cephalad: toward the head ("crown")
Caudal: toward the tail ("tailbone" or "coccyx")
D. Directional Terms: Activity 4, Complete on Page 6 Using Table 1.3:
- Used to describe location of body structures relative to other structures
- Superior - above
- Inferior - below
- Anterior - closer to the front of the body
- Posterior - closer to the back of the body
- Medial - closer to the midline (middle) of the body
- Lateral - farther from the midline of the body (to the side)
- Ipsilateral - on the same side of the body
- Contralateral - on the opposite sides of the body
- Proximal - nearer to the point of attachment of limb to trunk or point of origin of a blood vessel or nerve; closer
- Distal - farther from the point of attachment of limb to trunk or point of origin of a blood vessel or nerve; farther away
- Superficial - closer to the surface of the body
- Deep - farther from the surface of the body
BODY MOVEMENTS:
SEGMENTS (SECTIONS) AND PLANES OF THE BODY:
E. Body Planes and Sections: Activity 5, Complete on Page 7, Using Scissors and a Straw, a Knife and Piece of Fruit or a Candle:
- Plane: divides the body or organs into sections to observe internal structures
- Sagittal Plane: vertical plane through the body or organ, dividing them into right and left sections
- Midsagittal Plane: vertical plane through the body's midline (middle), dividing them into right and left halves
- Frontal (Coronal) Plane: vertical plane through the body, producing an anterior and posterior section (front and back)
- Transverse Plane: horizontal plane through the body, producing a superior and inferior section (cross-section)
- Oblique Plane: passes through the body at an angle
- Longitudinal Section: runs along the long axis of a long narrow structure, such as a blood vessel
- Cross-section: produced by a plane running perpendicular to the long axis
Transverse Plane: Cuts you in half, into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) halves; Runs horizontally
- "Cross-sections"
- A "section" is a "cut", real or imaginary, as seen in the images above
- A "plane" is an imaginary line or surface
- Median Plane: Bilateral symmetry (each half is a mirror image of the other) because the cut is directly down the middle or midline in two equal parts; Also called the Midsagittal Plane
- Coronal means "corona" or "crown", which refers to the head
ABDOMINAL REGIONS AND QUADRANTS OF THE BODY:
Because the abdominopelvic region covers a lot of surface and contains quite a few of your body's organs, it is divided into smaller segments referred to as quadrants and regions as seen in the visual images above. If you are going into the medical field, laboratory, physical or occupational therapy or kinesiology, radiology, or many other related fields, knowing this terminology is critical because it is what you will see/read in medical records, X-rays, reports, and is how you will communicate with other professionals as well. We will begin with quadrants.
There are 4 major quadrants. Remember when you are facing a body that looking directly at the body will be opposite from your own. Quadrants are classified based on their position.
There are 4 major quadrants. Remember when you are facing a body that looking directly at the body will be opposite from your own. Quadrants are classified based on their position.
- Right Upper Quadrant
- The largest part of the liver is located here, as well as part of the gallbladder
- Some of the ribs are located here
- The spleen is located here
- Part of the transverse large intestine is found here
- Part of the upper stomach is located here
- Some of the ribs are located here
- Part of the transverse large intestine is found here
- A small portion of the liver is found here
- Right Lower Quadrant
- Part of the large intestine and colon are located here
- The appendix is found here
- Part of the small intestine is here
- The right ovary is found here
- Part of the bladder is located here
- Left Lower Quadrant
- Part of the large intestine and colon are located here
- The largest portion of the small intestine is found here
- The left ovary is found here
- Part of the bladder is here
There are 9 surface regions: Abdominopelvic (Torso) Regions:
- Umbilical Region: This region is in the center and includes the umbilicus (naval, belly button, umbilical cord internally in a pregnant woman)
- Behind this area lies a portion of the transverse large intestine and the bulk of the small intestine
- Umbilical hernias occur here (rare)
- Gastrointestinal viruses often cause pain here
- Constipation often causes pain here
- Diarrhea often causes pain here
- Right Hypochondriac Region: The hypochondriac regions lie on either side of the epigastric region, above the lumbar regions, and over the lower ribs
- Individuals with liver enlargement, liver ailments or diseases may complain of pain in this region
- Individuals with gallstones or ailments affecting the gallbladder may complain of pain in this region
- Individuals with enlarged spleens (splenomegaly) may complain of pain in this region
- Individuals with bruised or cracked ribs may complain of pain in this region
- Left Hypochondriac Region: The hypochondriac regions lie on either side of the epigastric region, above the lumbar regions, and over the lower ribs
- Individuals with stomach ailments or ulcers may complain of pain in this region
- Individuals with cracked or bruised ribs may complain of pain in this region
- Epigastric Region: This region is just above the umbilical region, located in the center of the midline, and overlies the bulk of the stomach
- Individuals with stomach ailments or viruses will likely complain of pain in this region
- Liver or gallbladder ailments may produce some referred pain in this region
- Heartburn, reflux, and ulcers will produce pain and burning in this region
- Right Lumbar Region: These regions are found to the right of the umbilical region and between the rib and hip bones (iliac crests)
- The bulk of the large intestines are here
- Gas or constipation will produce pain in these regions
- Kidney flank pain due to stones or infection refer pain here
- Left Lumbar Region: These regions are found to the left of the umbilical region and between the rib and hip bones (iliac crests)
- The bulk of the large intestines are here
- Gas or constipation will produce pain in these regions
- Kidney flank pain due to stones or infection refer pain here
- Right Iliac/Inguinal Region: This region is to the right of the hypogastric region and is found just over the hip bones (iliac crests)
- Here lies the appendix, so appendicitis produces pain here
- The cecum colon is found here, and constipation or gas will produce pain here
- The right ovary is located here, and ovulation pain, cysts or other ailments may produce pain here in females
- Testical twisting may refer pain and tenderness here in males
- Hypogastric Region: This region is also referred to as the "pubic" region and lies just below the umbilical region
- The bladder is located here, so full bladder, spasms, or ailments affecting the bladder or urethra may produce pain here
- The cervix and uterus are found in this region in females, so menstrual cycles, pregnancy, STDs or pelvic inflammatory disease may produce pain here
- Appendicitis often refers pain to this region as well
- Some of the small intestine and large intestine are located here, so gastric cramping from any ailment may cause pain here
- STDs, stones, or other ailments affecting the male reproductive tract may produce pain in this region
- Left Iliac/Inguinal Region: This region is to the left of the hypogastric region and is found just over the hip bones (iliac crests)
- The sigmoid colon is found here, and constipation or gas will produce pain here
- The left ovary is located here, and ovulation pain, cysts or other ailments may produce pain here in females
- Testing twisting may refer pain and tenderness here in males
BODY CAVITIES:
DORSAL BODY CAVITY:
- This cavity contains both the CRANIAL CAVITY and the SPINAL CAVITY, both of which are continuous with each other
- CRANIAL CAVITY
- Houses the brain inside the protective skull
- SPINAL CAVITY
- Houses the spinal cord, continuous with the brain, within the protective vertebral column
- CRANIAL CAVITY
- This cavity contains the THORACIC CAVITY, ABDOMINAL CAVITY, PELVIC CAVITY
- THORACIC CAVITY
- This upper (superior) cavity is separated from the abdominal cavity via a special muscle called the DIAPHRAGM
- This cavity protects the heart and the lungs, surrounding by the rib cage
- This upper (superior) cavity is separated from the abdominal cavity via a special muscle called the DIAPHRAGM
- ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
- This cavity is below (inferior) the diaphragm and houses the abdominal and pelvic cavities respectively
- ABDOMINAL CAVITY
- The stomach is located here, as well as the liver, intestines, gallbladder, spleen, kidneys, and other organs
- The stomach is located here, as well as the liver, intestines, gallbladder, spleen, kidneys, and other organs
- PELVIC CAVITY
- The pelvic bones, bladder and reproductive organs, and the rectum are found here
- The pelvic bones, bladder and reproductive organs, and the rectum are found here
- ABDOMINAL CAVITY
- This cavity is below (inferior) the diaphragm and houses the abdominal and pelvic cavities respectively
- THORACIC CAVITY
MEMBRANES:
THE LANDMARKS OF THE BODY:
Surface landmarks of the body aid as a map or points of reference when studying the body. Some of the most common landmark terminology will be discussed here:
ANTERIOR:
ANTERIOR:
- Abdominal: referring to the abdomen or front (anterior) trunk region below the ribs
- Antecubital: refers to the front (anterior) portion of the elbow where the crease is found
- Axillary: armpit
- Brachial: arm
- Buccal: cheek
- Carpal: wrist
- Cervical: neck
- Coxal: hip
- Deltoid: shoulder
- Digital: fingers and toes (digits)
- Femoral: thigh
- Fibular: side of the leg (overlies the fibula bone)
- Inguinal: groin
- Mammary: breast
- Manus: hand
- Nasal: nose
- Oral: mouth
- Orbital: eyes or eye sockets (orbits)
- Patellar: kneecap (anterior knee)
- Pelvic: pelvis
- Pubic: genital region
- Sternal: sternum (breastbone)
- Tarsal: ankle
- Thoracic: chest
- Umbilical: navel (umbilicus) or belly button
- Cephalic: head
- Femoral: thigh
- Fibular: side of leg (outer)
- Gluteal: buttocks
- Lumbar: lower back
- Occipital: back of the head at the base of the skull
- Popliteal: back of the knee
- Sacral: sacrum, or the area between the two hip bones
- Scapular: shoulder blades (scapula)
- Sural: calf
- Vertebral: spinal column
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References:
1. Betts, J. Gordon. OpenStax: Anatomy and Physiology, 2e, https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e. OpenStax: Published April 20, 2022.
2. Patton, Kevin. Structure and Function of the Body, 16th edition. Published by Mosby, Evolve Elsevier-Sanders: Nov. 21, 2019.
3. Allen, Connie. Harper, Valerie. Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory Manual. John Wiley and Sons: Jan. 1, 2003.
4. Welsh, C. Prentice-Craver, C. Hole's Anatomy and Physiology, 16th edition. McGraw-Hill: Jan. 13, 2021.
5. Welsh, C. Prentice-Craver, C. Hole's Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology. McGraw-Hill: Jan. 1, 2023.
2. Patton, Kevin. Structure and Function of the Body, 16th edition. Published by Mosby, Evolve Elsevier-Sanders: Nov. 21, 2019.
3. Allen, Connie. Harper, Valerie. Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory Manual. John Wiley and Sons: Jan. 1, 2003.
4. Welsh, C. Prentice-Craver, C. Hole's Anatomy and Physiology, 16th edition. McGraw-Hill: Jan. 13, 2021.
5. Welsh, C. Prentice-Craver, C. Hole's Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology. McGraw-Hill: Jan. 1, 2023.